From poppy fields to black markets Understanding the drug trade in India and Myanmar – The Sangai Express

Sreeparna Banerjee (ORF, Observer Research Foundation)
Continued from previous edition
The route has remained closed since the pandemic and escalating violence in Myanmar, which resulted in the influx of more than 70,000 Myanmar residents between 2021 and May 2024.
Synthetic drugs
Synthetic drugs such as methamphetamine have gained popularity in this region and have led to a decline in opium production since 2015. Synthetic drugs are easier to produce compared to heroin, are cheaper and generate a good income. Heroin production requires good soil conditions, suitable weather conditions and heavy labor. Meth, on the other hand, is synthesized indoors, in weatherproof laboratories, by small teams of chemists, delivering more value for less labor. The easy availability of alternative raw materials facilitates low-cost production and secures a production space or facility. Forensic profiles are also diversifying, with primary precursors shifting from ephedrine and pseudoephedrine to phenylacetone (P-2-P)-based production methods. Therefore, alternative synthesis routes are available if the illicit trade in precursor chemicals is restricted.
The production of meth in the form of both crystal and ‘yaba’ tablets has increased dramatically in the country. Shan State remains the epicenter of methamphetamine production in East and Southeast Asia, as evidenced by numerous large-scale cases of methamphetamine trafficking in and around the state. Over the past decade, organized crime groups in Asia have collaborated with armed groups in Shan, especially within the Special Regions, to engage in the illicit production of drugs. However, Myanmar authorities have not identified any major methamphetamine production facilities since April 2020; The only facilities seized in recent years are smaller methamphetamine tablet operations in Southern Shan, which does not reflect the total supply of methamphetamine originating from Shan’s drug-producing regions. These areas are controlled by the United Wa State Army and the National Democratic Alliance Army, which are allied with organized crime groups.
Although the drug trade is not openly supported, it is not the primary target of the military government. There are several reasons for this. Political officials and the military establishment benefit financially from transnational organized crime, including illegal activities such as wildlife trafficking, illegal mining, logging, and the trafficking of people, weapons, and drugs. These activities serve as a source of income for the government. The UNODC estimates that opiates accounted for about 2 to 4 percent of Myanmar’s GDP in 2023.
India’s concerns
India shares a porous 1,643 km border with Myanmar. The proximity of India’s northeastern states – Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh – to the border facilitates easy access for drug smugglers, traffickers and insurgents. This accessibility contributes to the trafficking and distribution of illicit drugs within these regions, exacerbating local and regional security problems.
Trends in the drug trade
In recent years, there has been a rise in drug seizures in India’s northeastern states bordering Myanmar. Between July 2022 and July 2023, Manipur Police seized contraband worth around US$193 million.(54) In the financial year 2021-2022, drugs worth US$10.17 million were seized, and in 2020- 21, the loot was estimated at $14.36 million. . Experts estimate that 90 percent of drugs smuggled into the NER come from Myanmar. The year 2024 continues to reflect this trend, as evidenced by drug seizure reports in several NER states.
Between January 1 and April 25, 2024, the Mizoram Excise and Narcotics Department arrested persons involved in drug trafficking and alcohol-related activities; 2,297 people were arrested and 30 vehicles linked to these illegal activities were seized. The department seized large quantities of illegal substances, including 26.494 kg of heroin, 384.1001 kg of marijuana and 112.528 kg of methamphetamine. In addition, the department intercepted 5,127 bottles of cough syrup, 1,678 alprazolam tablets and 136 tramadol tablets.
Illegal poppy cultivation in Manipur
India is the only country in Asia that allows farmers to grow opium gum for medical and scientific purposes. Legal cultivation is regulated in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. The Central Bureau of Narcotics (CBN) issues licenses to farmers, who must meet specific yield requirements and sell their entire opium crop to the government. This regulated market is in stark contrast to the illegal cultivation and trade activities in the Northeastern States.
Illegal poppy cultivation is prevalent in the NER, including in Manipur and Arunachal Pradesh, which share extensive borders with Kachin State, Sagaing Region and Chin State in Myanmar. These border areas have similar geographic landscapes and are home to ethnic groups living in remote and mountainous areas. The similar socio-economic structure, ongoing insurgencies, and shared cultural and geographical ties between these regions enable the continued existence of illegal poppy cultivation.
In Arunachal Pradesh, opium cultivation is mainly concentrated in Anjaw and Lohit districts, while in Manipur it is most prevalent in Saikul, Ukhrul and Chandel districts. Opium cultivation is a tradition in certain areas in Arunachal Pradesh, while in other areas it is a more recent practice adopted by villagers as a means of livelihood.
Reports indicate that opium cultivation in Manipur is more closely intertwined with the regional drug economy and linked to several actors, mainly from Myanmar. This region shows distinct patterns of drug use compared to Arunachal Pradesh, with residents consuming a wide range of manufactured drugs including cough syrup, methamphetamine (often referred to as “WY from Myanmar”), heroin (sourced from Imphal, the capital of Manipur), and pharmaceutical drugs such as alprazolam. This contrasts with Arunachal Pradesh, where opium remains the most commonly consumed drug in villages.
Manipur has experienced a significant increase in illegal poppy cultivation over the past decade. Poppy is locally known as kaani, and its farming has become widespread in the hilly areas of the state, which are mainly inhabited by tribal communities. According to the Narcotic and Affairs Border (NAB) unit of Manipur police, illegal poppy cultivation is concentrated in the hill districts of Ukhrul, Senapati, Kangpok-pi, Kamjong, Churachandpur and Tengnoupal. Between 2020 and February 2021, law enforcement agencies eradicated 1,420 hectares of poppy crops. From 2017 to 2019, Manipur police destroyed 2,858 hectares of poppy fields. Drugs such as WY tablets, Spasmo Proxyvon (SP) capsules or painkillers, methamphetamine, opium, heroin and brown sugar, as well as other contraband worth millions of dollars, are regularly seized.
The rise of heroin production units in Manipur is mainly due to the rise of poppy cultivation in Manipur. For example, in December 2019, a heroin lab in Kangpokpi was busted and 41 kg of heroin worth INR 165,172 crore was seized. Three of the six drug laboratories destroyed in 2019 were in Thoubal district. Between 2020 and 2022, security forces busted another four labs in Thoubal. This underlines the close link between poppy plantations and the drug trade, with opium poppies from Manipur being sold to dealers in Myanmar for drug production, which are then smuggled back into the state.
Routes of drug trafficking
Manipur is close to the main drug smuggling routes from Myanmar, mainly through the Shan Hills and Tiddim in Chin State. The state is known as a transit center for smuggling drugs to different parts of the world.
(to be continued)