From poppy fields to black markets Understanding the drug trade in India and Myanmar – The Sangai Express

Sreeparna Banerjee (ORF, Observer Research Foundation)
The 2023 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime report highlights a sharp increase in drug production in Myanmar, posing serious security concerns. Poppy cultivation, which is crucial for heroin production, will increase by 33 percent in 2022, reversing the downward trend since 2014. Experts attribute the increase largely to livelihood challenges: Myanmar’s economy shrank by 18 percent in 2021, with only a modest recovery in 2022. and there are the growing problems of currency devaluation and inflation. The increase has been pronounced in regions near the India-Myanmar border such as Sagaing Region, Chin State, Kachin State and Shan State. The escalation of drug seizures and poppy cultivation in Indian states such as Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh also points to the expansion of smuggling networks. This article examines the security implications of increasing drug trafficking along the India-Myanmar border.
Introduction
Drug trafficking is a non-traditional security threat that impacts public health and safety and undermines political stability and economic development. Globally, drug trafficking flows are estimated at $650 billion, accounting for 30 percent of the total illicit economy.
The Northeast Region (NER) of India has been grappling with the challenge of drug trafficking since the 1970s, mainly due to the region’s proximity to the Golden Triangle. The unfenced, porous Indo-Myanmar border facilitates significant flow of narcotics into India, impacting the socio-economic fabric of this region.
Myanmar is the second largest opium grower and heroin producer in the world after Afghanistan. Its strategic location within the Golden Triangle, with its overland routes and porous borders, allows for the smooth flow of illicit substances, making the country a major player in the regional drug trafficking network. These operations are often run by organized crime groups, ethnic militias, insurgent organizations and military factions, who also engage in other illegal activities such as arms smuggling, money laundering and human trafficking.
In 2023, Myanmar became the world’s largest opium producer, with illegal cultivation growing from 99,000 to 116,000 hectares. This increase has increased the threat of drug trafficking in the NER. In the 2022-2023 financial year alone, contraband worth over US$267 million was recovered in the NER states. There is a need for steadfast cooperation and coordination between national and international law enforcement agencies to curb the transnational syndicate. To this end, India and Myanmar have certain mechanisms in place but have not been able to arrest drug trafficking.
The following sections analyze the link between security threats and drug trafficking; assess border dynamics between India and Myanmar; and examine the factors behind the increase in poppy cultivation in Myanmar following the 2021 coup. It then discusses India’s concerns, focusing on the northeastern state of Manipur; examines existing bilateral and multilateral mechanisms; and offers recommendations for further steps.
Drug trafficking and its consequences for national security
The illicit movement of narcotics and drugs poses multiple threats to national security. First, it results in violations of a country’s international borders by drug traffickers, raising concerns about the state’s ability to control its borders and protect its citizens from external threats. The ease of drug smuggling along these routes may indicate that the same channels can also be used to smuggle weapons, explosives and terrorists into the country.
Second, the money generated from the illegal sale of narcotics could be used to finance insurgents and terrorist activities. In the NER, smaller militant organizations are directly involved in drug trafficking to make quick money.
Finally, the drug trade damages the economy, public health and the political landscape. The widespread availability of narcotic drugs increases domestic demand, leading to antisocial behavior, which in turn leads to public order disruptions. Public health is being hit hard, with an increase in addictions, overdoses and related diseases, which in turn puts pressure on healthcare systems. Furthermore, drug trafficking has a direct impact on the political process, with drug cartels undermining, penetrating and corrupting state institutions to control the illicit drug trade.
The India-Myanmar border faces unconventional security challenges, involving issues such as the movement of insurgents across the borders, narcotics and drug trafficking, illicit arms trafficking, wildlife and human smuggling, and the illicit transportation of essential goods. The vulnerability of the India-Myanmar border to these threats is mainly attributed to the nature and location of the border.
The demarcation of the border is set out in the India-Burma Boundary Agreement of March 10, 1967. Although the remainder of the international border has been demarcated, disagreements remain over the alignment of certain portions between the two countries. In 2018, India’s Home Minister stated that there were no significant issues and that only the marking of nine pillars along the international border in the Manipur sector remained to be addressed. However, the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent political instability due to the 2021 coup have brought this task to a standstill.
Besides unresolved disputes, the India-Myanmar border is highly permeable due to four factors:
A Crossing Border: The border created by the Pemberton Line divides communities in the region and separates tribes such as the Nagas, Kukis, Mizos and Chins. Despite artificial divisions, these tribes maintain strong cross-border social and economic ties with their clan members, prioritizing clan loyalty over national ties. Such robust cross-border ethnic connections have hampered the nation-building process in the region and delayed the establishment of a clear international border.
The Free Movement Regime (FMR): The FMR has complicated the demarcation of the border between India and Myanmar. Recognizing that areas across the border provide a unified socio-economic space for tribes, both governments have agreed to allow tribes to move up to 10 miles into each other’s territory without documentation. While this arrangement helps the tribes maintain their long-standing ties, it is also exploited by Indian insurgents, who use the FMR to enter Myanmar to undergo weapons training, establish safe havens and re-enter India to carry out subversive activities . Furthermore, this route has facilitated the flow of drugs and narcotics.
(to be continued)